Behavioral Theory of Leadership

Assumptions

Leaders can be made, rather than are born. Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior.

Description

Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do.

If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt the more ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'.


Discussion

Behavioral is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This opens the floodgates to leadership development, as opposed to simple psychometric assessment that sorts those with leadership potential from those who will never have the chance.

A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both leadership success and the actions of leaders. With a large enough study, you can then correlate statistically significant behaviors with success. You can also identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a second layer of understanding.

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REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP THEORY

A review of the leadership literature reveals an evolving series of 'schools of thought' from “Great Man” and “Trait” theories to “Transformational” leadership (see table). Whilst early theories tend to focus upon the characteristics and behaviours of successful leaders, later theories begin to consider the role of followers and the contextual nature of leadership.


GREAT MAN THEORIES
Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories


TRAIT THEORIES
The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life


BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization


CONTINGENCY THEORIES
This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances


TRANSACTIONAL THEORIES
This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers


TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance



Each of these theories takes a rather individualistic perspective of the leader, although a school of thought gaining increasing recognition is that of “dispersed” leadership. This approach, with its foundations in sociology, psychology and politics rather than management science, views leadership as a process that is diffuse throughout an organization rather than lying solely with the formally designated ‘leader’. The emphasis thus shifts from developing ‘leaders’ to developing ‘leaderful’ organizations with a collective responsibility for leadership. In the current section we will focus primarily on the more traditional, individualistic views of the leader as we feel these have greatest relevance to the development of management and leadership standards.

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7 Tips for a Successful Job Fair Experience

by Daniel Dage

In my county or any other county for that matter when attending a job fair

I just returned from our county’s Teacher Job fair and it was a bit of a hoot. First off, I was incredibly nervous going into this thing. While I think most people are nervous about job interviews, I was a bit more nervous than most people, because I knew a lot of the people there i.e. the Supt. of HR, the director of Special ed. plus my own administrators at my own school plus countless other people in the system. And the first question that I knew that would be asked was, “What are you doing here?!?” I knew this fair wasn’t for me, but the system had no provision for voluntary transfers this year. So I was willing to do my own legwork, and this fair was a place where I thought I could have a chance to talk with many administrators in one shot.

There really were a TON of people in attendance. Keep in mind, this fair was only recruiting for secondary science, math and fully certified special education (I’m in 2 out of 3 of those). It was very narrowly focused, and yet it was still pretty packed at 10:30. I debated about whether to go in or come back later but just went in, after taking a deep breath. I walked across a drizzly parking lot and got in lines where people registered and got name tags.

And this is the part where I’m going to tell you what to do or not to do:

1. Get Certified. This seems like a no-brainer, but there were still people showing up who were not certified and still hadn’t even gone through the process. You can begin by going to the Georgia Standards Commission website and learning about the process and applying.

2. Read the notice of what the district is looking for. You can find out all about job fairs and recruitment at the TeachGeorgia site. This is a great resource for teacher job hunters in Georgia. It’s been a few years ago, but I was registered on there and did get calls from administrators during the summer. A bonus tip is to have your profile link to your own web page/resume.

3. Bring your certificate/copies with you. They were really checking and screening those today, so people who did not have theirs had to go to another line where a helpful person would help you pull it up and run a copy. But that slows you down, and you’ll look unprepared.

4. Bring multiple resume copies. I think most people know and do this already, but it’s too important NOT to mention.

5. Get and fill out an application beforehand. Most school system applications can be obtained online, and many can be completed online. Go ahead and fill one out and submit it, then have a copy to keep with you when you go to a job fair or interview.

6. Talk and network with other perspective job hunters. While there might be some degree of competitiveness, there is also a possibility of some of these folks becoming your coworkers. While I talked to a few nice opeople, I also met a couple of surly characters who had their game face on and were not interested in chatting. I found myself hoping that I would never have to work with them and had a thought about pointing them out to my HR contact. However, I do have faith in the people doing the hiring and interviewing in the special education department that they will be able to sort out the nonhackers. And some people talk when they asre nervous and some would rather not. For the latter group, I wonder why they are teachers. I find talking helps lower the tension, but maybe that’s just me.

7. Have work samples. This tip alone is worth your time, and is your reward for reading this far. It’s my contribution to teacher innovation. The light bulb went off in my head yesterday. I basically put pictures on my mp4 player, as well as a short video I did, just to show and wow whoever I talked to about how I might use technology in a class. While it wasn’t exactly a powerpoint, it worked just like one. Now I had a portable way to show off my stuff. Trouble is, I never had a chance to use it.

I was in the process of standing in the special ed. line waiting to be screened by my special ed. director, where I figured I was going to have to answer that question. But the associate superintendent got to me first and that was the end of my job fair experience. He said he was willing to work on some sort of transfer later once he knew where all the openings were. He seemed like he was willing to work with me, even though there was no provisions made for voluntary transfers this year.

I can only hope, but without getting my hopes up too high. Last year, the principal had told me I would make an excellent coteacher in science. But that was a different principal who knew he was leaving and could say whatever he wanted. By the time I realized that there was not much of an intention to move me, it was too late to ask for a transfer or it would have been denied in any case. So this year, I am perfectly okay with staying if I have to but moving if I can. I’ve got good people to work with, good people to work for. But there are other worlds to conquer and learn.

I did a small poll of a few people at the job fair and I discovered that while there were a ton of teacher wannabes there, there are very, very, very few who are both willing and able to do SID/PID at any level, let alone at the high school. On some level I see why, but on another it is depressing.

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Business Tips : 5 Tips on Budgeting

By SCORE

1. Think of a budget as a useful tool—a written financial plan that helps you set goals and measure progress.
2. Start by coming up with a sales revenue target. Make it your best estimate.
3. Based on past experience, estimate your cost of goods sold (e.g., 70 percent of sales) and subtract it from the sales revenue to come up with your estimated gross margin.
4. Forecast variable expenses (items such as travel and commissions that vary according to the level of sales) and fixed expenses (items like taxes and rent that stay the same, regardless of sales). Subtract these expenses from your gross margin to arrive at your estimated net income (before federal taxes).
5. Break your annual budget into quarters and monitor your progress every three months to detect problems and make corrections.

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10 Ways to Go Green at Work

By sierraclub .typepad .com

Greener homes are in the spotlight these days, but what about the other places where many of us spend huge chunks of our time--our offices? Some simple changes of habit can save energy and resources at work, and these small steps can be multiplied by persuading the powers-that-be at your workplace to adopt environmentally friendly (and often cost-effective) policies.

1) Be bright about light

Artificial lighting accounts for 44 percent of the electricity use in office buildings.

• Make it a habit to turn off the lights when you're leaving any room for 15 minutes or more and utilize natural light when you can.
• Make it a policy to buy Energy Star-rated lightbulbs and fixtures, which use at least two-thirds less energy than regular lighting, and install timers or motion sensors that automatically shut off lights when they're not needed.

2) Maximize computer efficiency

Computers in the business sector unnecessarily waste $1 billion worth of electricity a year.

• Make it a habit to turn off your computer—and the power strip it's plugged into—when you leave for the day. Otherwise, you're still burning energy even if you're not burning the midnight oil. (Check with your IT department to make sure the computer doesn't need to be on to run backups or other maintenance.) During the day, setting your computer to go to sleep automatically during short breaks can cut energy use by 70 percent. Remember, screen savers don't save energy.
• Make it a policy to invest in energy-saving computers, monitors, and printers and make sure that old equipment is properly recycled. Look for a recycler that has pledged not to export hazardous e-waste and to follow other safety guidelines. Old computers that still work, and are less than five years old, can be donated to organizations that will refurbish them and find them new homes. (You may even get a tax deduction.)

3) Print smarter

The average U.S. office worker goes through 10,000 sheets of copy paper a year.

• Make it a habit to print on both sides or use the back side of old documents for faxes, scrap paper, or drafts. Avoid color printing and print in draft mode whenever feasible.
• Make it a policy to buy chlorine-free paper with a higher percentage of post-consumer recycled content. Also consider switching to a lighter stock of paper or alternatives made from bamboo, hemp, organic cotton, or kenaf. Recycle toner and ink cartridges and buy remanufactured ones. According to Office Depot, each remanufactured toner cartridge "keeps approximately 2.5 pounds of metal and plastic out of landfills...and conserves about a half gallon of oil."

4) Go paperless when possible

• Make it a habit to think before you print: could this be read or stored online instead? When you receive unwanted catalogs, newsletters, magazines, or junk mail, request to be removed from the mailing list before you recycle the item.
• Make it a policy to post employee manuals and similar materials online, rather than distribute print copies. They're easier to update that way too.

5) Ramp up your recycling

• Make it a habit to recycle everything your company collects. Just about any kind of paper you would encounter in an office, including fax paper, envelopes, and junk mail, can be recycled. So can your old cell phone, PDA, or pager.
• Make it a policy to place recycling bins in accessible, high-traffic areas and provide clear information about what can and can not be recycled.

6) Close the loop

• Make it a policy to purchase office supplies and furniture made from recycled materials.

7) Watch what (and how) you eat

• Make it a habit to bring your own mug and dishware for those meals you eat at the office.
• Make it a policy to provide reusable dishes, silverware, and glasses. Switch to Fair Trade and organic coffee and tea, and buy as much organic and local food as possible for parties and other events. Provide filtered drinking water to reduce bottled-water waste.

8) Rethink your travel

• Make it a habit to take the train, bus, or subway when feasible instead of a rental car when traveling on business. If you have to rent a car, some rental agencies now offer hybrids and other high-mileage vehicles.
• Make it a policy to invest in videoconferencing and other technological solutions that can reduce the amount of employee travel.

9) Reconsider your commute

• Make it a habit to carpool, bike, or take transit to work, and/or telecommute when possible. If you need to drive occasionally, consider joining a car-sharing service like Zipcar and Flexcar instead of owning your own wheels.
• Make it a policy to encourage telecommuting (a nice perk that's also good for the planet!) and make it easy for employees to take alternative modes of transportation by subsidizing commuter checks, offering bike parking, or organizing a carpool board.

10) Create a healthy office environment

• Make it a habit to use nontoxic cleaning products. Brighten up your cubicle with plants, which absorb indoor pollution.
• Make it a policy to buy furniture, carpeting, and paint that are free of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and won't off-gas toxic chemicals.

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Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:

1. "Great Man" Theories:
Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

7. Management Theories:
Management theories (also known as "Transactional theories") focus on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories (also known as "Transformational theories") focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

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Trik Efektif Menghadapi interview

Wawancara merupakan proses penting untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan. Berhasil tidaknya Anda mendapatkan Kerja salah satunya ditentukan oleh proses wawancara. Banyak mereka yang mempunyai kemampuan diatas rata-rata atau genius, tetapi gagal dalam proses ini. Sikap dan karakter diri Anda, kematangan Anda dalam berfikir, atau bahkan persiapan yang Anda lakukan untuk menghadapi wawancara secara langsung akan mempengaruhi hasil dari wawancara. Berikut trik super efektif dalam menghadapi wawancara, baik wawancara pertama Anda maupun bagi Anda yang sudah sering melakukan wawancara.

1. Tiba lebih awal. Rencanakan untuk tiba lebih awal dari jadwal yang telah ditentukan. Dengan waktu yang masih tersisa sebelum wawancara, Anda dapat gunakannya untuk mengatur emosi, mengontrol stres yang tidak perlu, mengumpulkan pikiran agar tetap fokus, dan menyempurnakan persiapan Anda lainnya seperti pakaian dan make up Anda.

2. Jabat tangan interviewer dengan tegas dan biarkan interviewer memulai pembicaraan. Saat Anda bertemu dengan interviewer , pandanglah kedua matanya dan jabatlah tangannya dengan tegas. Interviewer akan mengetahui karakter Anda melalui cara Anda berjabat tangan. Berikan kesempatan kepada interviewer untuk memulai pembicaraan. Misalnya menanyakan nama Anda, menjelaskan tugas Anda, dan posisi Anda. Hal ini akan memberikan kempatan kepada Anda untuk mencerna informasi dari interviewer.

3. Berikan jawaban yang singkat dan jelas. Dalam sebuah wawancara ada beberapa pertanyaan kunci yang sebaiknya Anda jawab dengan singkat namun jelas. Contohnya “Apa yang menjadi alasan Anda untuk hengkang dari perusahaan sebelumnya?”, “Apa yang menjadi kelebihan dan kekurangan Anda?”, “Kesalahan apa yang pernah Anda perbuat dan bagaimana mengatasinya?” dan sebagainya. Usahakan Anda menjawab semua pertanyaan yang diberikan sesuai dengan jalur dan jangan memberikan jawaban yang akan menimbulkan pertanyaan baru atau membingungkan interviewer.

4. Aktif dalam percakapan. Ciptakan hubungan yang akrab dengan interviewer dan ajukan pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan lowongan kerja yang Anda lamar. Misalnya peraturan perusahaan, kebijaksanaan perusahaan yang Anda dapatkan jika diterima untuk bekerja (Jamsostek, tunjangan hari raya, dll).

5. Tetap rendah hati. Walaupun Anda sudah cukup berpengalaman, terapkanlah sikap rendah hati. Jangan sampai Anda meremehkan persyaratan dan pertanyaan yang diberikan oleh interviewer. Jawab pertanyaan dengan senyuman dan jawaban yang mengesankan. Sikap rendah hati akan sangat disukai walaupun Anda sudah mempunyai segudang pengalaman kerja karena hal inilah yang mencerminkan sikap Anda nantinya jika Anda diterima untuk bekerja.

6. Perlihatkan minat dan semangat. Ekspresi wajah Anda akan sangat berpengaruh pada kesan interviewer terhadap Anda. Ekspresi yang monoton tidak akan membuat interviewer berminat dan yakin akan kemampuan Anda. Cerikan tentang pengalaman yang telah anda jalani dengan ekspresi yang bersemangat dan yakinkan interviewer bahwa Anda akan sukses melakukan pekerjaan yang baru nantinya berkat pengalaman dimasa lalu.

7. Menetapkan harapan Anda. Pada umumnya, sebelum dilakukannya wawancara Anda diharuskan mengisi formulir interview yang berisikan informasi tambahan yang dibutuhkan oleh perusahaan untuk menyeleksi kandidatnya, termasuk salary dan fasilitas yang diharapkan. Jangan mematok harga yang tidak rasional. Lebih bijak jika Anda megukur terlebih dahulu kemampuan Anda bukan mengikuti keinginan Anda, lalu simpulkan seberapa layak Anda mendapatkan salary dan fasilitas jika Anda diterima untuk bekerja di perusahaan tersebut. Jangan lupa untuk mencari informasi standard salary perusahaan dari karyawan, internet dan beberapa buku panduan lainnya. Contohnya, untuk standar gaji lulusan S1, D3, SMA sederajat dan sebagainya. Lebih banyak informasi yang Anda dapatkan akan lebih mematangkan persiapan Anda untuk wawancara.

8. Jangan menceritakan kelemahan perusahaan sebelumnya. Ada beberapa interviewer yang memancing peserta wawancara untuk mencari selah agar Anda mencerikan kelemahan perusahaan dimana Anda bekerja sebelumnya. Hindari menceritakan kelemahan perusahaan, atasan bahkan lingkungan kerja Anda sebelumnya. Ada beberapa asumsi dari sang interviewer jika Anda terpancing dengan pertanyaan ini “Jika Anda mengundurkan diri dari perusahaannya, akan sangat memungkinkan jika Anda juga akan menceritakan kelemahan perusahaannya” Agar tidak terpancing dengan tipe pertanyaan seperti ini, persiapkanlah jawaban Anda sebelum menghadapi wawancara. Ingat, Bukan berarti Anda harus berbohong untuk menutupi kelemahan perusahaan sebelumnya. Intinya buatlah jawaban yang sekreatif mungkin dan tidak manipulatif.

9. Ucapkan terima kasih dan follow up. Setelah wawancara selesai jangan lupa ucapkan terima kasih pada interviewer karena Anda telah diberikan kesempatan untuk wawancara meskipun Anda nantinya tidak diterima bekerja di perusahaan tersebut atau tidak tertarik pada pekerjaaan tersebut. Dan jangan lupa untuk follow up, sejauh mana hasil dari wawancara. Anda bisa menghubungi perusahaan untuk menanyakan hasil wawancara.

Anda harus berjiwa besar jika Anda tidak diterima untuk bekerja, tetapi setidaknya Anda mendapatkan pengalaman dan ilmu dari wawancara tersebut, sehingga Anda akan mempunyai gambaran dan dapat mengantisipasi apa yang akan terjadi dikemudian hari jika Anda menghadapi wawancara.

Remember ! Kegagalan adalah proses dari pembelajaran.